Materials

A shift from free-abrasive/steel wire sawing to fixed-abrasive diamond wire sawing is expected to take place in the PV cell manufacturing industry, with 2018 being the anticipated pivotal point for market dominance. This shift is due to several key advantages of diamond wire sawing, such as higher throughput, less wire per wafer, no slurry and the possibility of kerf recycling. However, in order for diamond wire sawing to realize its promise as the next-generation workhorse for the slicing of silicon PV wafers, inherent fundamental challenges must be properly identified and successfully addressed by the PV industry. As a first step to increasing the current collective understanding of the critical needs/challenges of diamond wire sawing, the c-Si programme of the U.S. PVMC held a workshop on July 8th, 2014 in San Francisco, California. One of the key products of this workshop was an extensive list of short- and long-term challenges. This article expands on some of the most important challenges identified at the workshop through the collective discussions and dialogue among a variety of PV industry experts and stakeholders.

One question to emerge in recent years is whether monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) or multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) will become the dominant mainstream technology in the future PV industry. However, despite all the arguments, the market share of mc-Si seems barely changed, while the market share of mono-Si has not increased significantly. The reasons why mono-Si has not made progress have been extensively mentioned in the literature and will therefore not be covered here; rather, the objective of this paper is to discuss several benefits of mono-Si.

Solar cell performance depends on material quality, as well as on the architecture of the cell. In the search for higher-performing cells, an ability to visualize the bulk and surface quality of the material is an advantage; to do this non-destructively, even in-line, is even better. It would be good to have X-ray vision to look inside, would it not? X-ray diffraction imaging (XRDI) does just that. Images are obtained of the distortions caused by crystal defects, and quantitative measures of the lattice deformation are available. In this paper the results obtained on a commercially available XRDI tool are compared with those from a largescale public research facility.

The crystalline silicon (c-Si) module price has been fluctuating slightly around the US$0.72/Wp level for the last 18 months. This pricing, at an estimated cumulative PV module shipment volume of 149GWp, indicates a trend change for the PV industry. C-Si module pricing appears to be currently above the production cost and should therefore yield a profit margin. However, there is still a mismatch between manufacturing capacity and future market demand. A closer look at the pricing figures reveals that there is no indication to give the allclear during the ongoing consolidation process in the PV industry. C-Si module pricing is not reflecting the increase in polysilicon and wafer prices, and therefore the pressure to reduce the cell and module conversion costs remains a looming fact. This paper describes state-of-the-art c-Si cell manufacturing solutions that are in line with identified trends in materials, processes and products recently published in the 5th edition of the International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV). Currently available c-Si cell technologies offering higher efficiencies as well as materials savings will be discussed. The need for implementing these technologies in mass production without significantly increasing the cost per piece and in the face of more complex manufacturing processes will be established. The findings of the ITRPV regarding the reduction in levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) will be discussed, leading to the conclusion that contemporary cell technology supports the long-term competitiveness of PV-based power generation.

Metal wrap-through (MWT) module technology is an attractive approach for increasing module efficiency. This paper shares the results of MWT module fabrication using a silicone electrically conductive adhesive (ECA), a conductive backsheet (CBS) with a thin organic layer surface finish, and an automated module assembly line. Very low cell-to-module (CTM) power losses are observed, leading to a multicrystalline Si module power of 266W and a full-area efficiency of 16.8%. The modules are very stable in damp-heat conditions and thermal cycling, demonstrating minimal degradation after 1.5 x IEC requirements in terms of damp heat and thermal cycling, and well below 2% degradation after 2 x IEC requirements. These MWT modules have received IEC 61215 and IEC 61730 certification.

This paper presents the results of a study of the influence of silver powder particle size and inorganic additives on sintering and electrical performance of a PV front-side metallization paste. Three different silver powder grain sizes were used in sample front-side pastes. Also examined is the effect of using four different inorganic additives determined by their redox potential. Solar cells produced using the sample pastes were electrically characterized, and selective etch-backs and FESEM investigations were performed to correlate electrical performance with the glassy interface between the metallization and the silicon wafer. In the absence of additives, the highest efficiencies were obtained with the medium silver grain size. If the inorganic species has an oxidizing nature, the mass transport of silver in the glass phase can be enhanced. However, the etch process at the wafer surface is also improved by a greater quantity of silver oxide in the flowing glass. It is shown that if the oxidizing capacity of the additive is too powerful, the electrical performance is negatively influenced. Moreover, the impact of additives is highly dependent on the silver particle size.

Certain PV modules have begun showing signs of yellowing, a consequence of backsheet deterioration. This phenomenon can impact on power plant performance and safety, and is emerging as a potential problem waiting to happen with low-cost modules. This paper explores the key attributes of backsheets and assesses the relative benefits of the different types of backsheet on the market and the materials used in them. The different tests undertaken for backsheets are reviewed, and arguments are put forward for the requirement of a standardized testing regime for this crucial module component.

Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) are an alternative interconnection technology especially suited to high-efficiency cell concepts with new contact structures. This paper describes the basic principles of this emerging interconnection technology and discusses the different material types on the market. Mechanical and electrical characterization methods for conductive adhesives are also presented. Results are included from peel tests, volume and contact resistivity measurements, metallographic investigations, dynamic mechanical analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. Finally, a novel simulation approach for the cure kinetics of ECAs and arbitrary temperature profiles is briefly described and demonstrated by an example of an epoxy adhesive cure.

Future high efficiency silicon solar cells are expected to be based on n-type monocrystalline wafers. Cell and module photovoltaic conversion efficiency increases are required to contribute to lower cost per watt peak and to reduce balance of systems cost. Past barriers to adoption of n-type silicon cells by a broad base of cell and module suppliers include the higher cost to manufacture a p-type emitter junction and the higher cost of the n-type mono silicon crystal. Technologies to reduce the cost of manufacturing the p-type emitter by diffusion or implantation of boron are being developed in the industry. To reduce the cost and improve further the quality of n-type mono silicon crystal, SunEdison has developed a continuous Czochralski (CCZ) crystal pulling process, based on the technology of Solaicx, acquired in 2010. This CCZ technique allows production of a crystal with much greater resistivity uniformity, with a lower incorporation rate of lifetimereducing metals impurities, and allows crystal oxygen to be selected independent of production batch size. CCZ is expected to reduce n-type crystal cost below that of current p-type mono crystal.

Statistical data on potential-induced degradation (PID) testing at the panel level are discussed in terms of their field relevance and the actual occurrence of PID in the field, since the latter is strongly dependent on both the specific climate and the weather conditions at a certain location as well as on the system configuration realized in a specific power plant. The correlation of outdoor conditions and leakage current is also considered with regard to a suitable standard test for solar panels. Real outdoor data are shown for PID-affected power plants. Indoor and outdoor recovery is demonstrated for PID in real solar plants as well as in lab and outdoor set-ups. Apart from ‘measuring’ PID in suitable tests and in the field, approaches are also presented for the mitigation of PID at the panel and system level.